abrash-black-book/04-07.md

#### The Impact of DRAM Refresh {#Heading17}

Let's look at examples from opposite ends of the spectrum in terms of
the impact of DRAM refresh on code performance. First, consider the
series of **MUL** instructions in Listing 4.9. Since a 16-bit **MUL** on
the 8088 executes in between 118 and 133 cycles and is only 2 bytes
long, there should be plenty of time for the prefetch queue to fill
after each instruction, even after DRAM refresh has taken its slice of
memory access time. Consequently, the prefetch queue should be able to
keep the Execution Unit well-supplied with instruction bytes at all
times. Since Listing 4.9 uses no memory operands, the Execution Unit
should never have to wait for data from memory, and DRAM refresh should
have no impact on performance. (Remember that the Execution Unit can
operate normally during DRAM refreshes so long as it doesn't need to
request a memory access from the Bus Interface Unit.)

**LISTING 4.9 LST4-9.ASM**

    ; Measures the performance of repeated MUL instructions,
    ; which allow the prefetch queue to be full at all times,
    ; to demonstrate a case in which DRAM refresh has no impact
    ; on code performance.
    ;
         sub  ax,ax
         call ZTimerOn
         rept 1000
         mul  ax
         endm
         call ZTimerOff

Running Listing 4.9, we find that each **MUL** executes in 24.72 µs, or
exactly 118 cycles. Since that's the shortest time in which **MUL** can
execute, we can see that no performance is lost to DRAM refresh. Listing
4.9 clearly illustrates that DRAM refresh only affects code performance
when a DRAM refresh forces the Execution Unit of the 8088 to wait for a
memory access.

Now let's look at the series of **SHR** instructions shown in Listing
4.10. Since **SHR** executes in 2 cycles but is 2 bytes long, the
prefetch queue should be empty while Listing 4.10 executes, with the
8088 prefetching instruction bytes non-stop. As a result, the time per
instruction of Listing 4.10 should precisely reflect the time required
to fetch the instruction bytes.

**LISTING 4.10 LST4-10.ASM**

    ; Measures the performance of repeated SHR instructions,
    ; which empty the prefetch queue, to demonstrate the
    ; worst-case impact of DRAM refresh on code performance.
    ;
         call ZTimerOn
         rept 1000
         shr  ax,1
         endm
         call ZTimerOff

Since 4 cycles are required to read each instruction byte, we'd expect
each **SHR** to execute in 8 cycles, or 1.676 µs, if there were no DRAM
refresh. In fact, each **SHR** in Listing 4.10 executes in 1.81 µs,
indicating that DRAM refresh is taking 7.4 percent of the program's
execution time. That's nearly 2 percent more than our worst-case
estimate of the loss to DRAM refresh overhead! In fact, the result
indicates that DRAM refresh is stealing not 4, but 5.33 cycles out of
every 72 cycles. How can this be?

The answer is that a given DRAM refresh can actually hold up CPU memory
accesses for as many as 6 cycles, depending on the timing of the DRAM
refresh's DMA request relative to the 8088's internal instruction
execution state. When the code in Listing 4.10 runs, each DRAM refresh
holds up the CPU for either 5 or 6 cycles, depending on where the 8088
is in executing the current **SHR** instruction when the refresh request
occurs. Now we see that things can get even worse than we thought: *DRAM
refresh can steal as much as 8.33 percent of available memory access
time—6 out of every 72 cycles—from the 8088.*

Which of the two cases we've examined reflects reality? While either
case *can* happen, the latter case—significant performance reduction,
ranging as high as 8.33 percent—is far more likely to occur. This is
especially true for high-performance assembly code, which uses fast
instructions that tend to cause non-stop instruction fetching.

#### What to Do About the DRAM Refresh Cycle-Eater? {#Heading18}

*Hmmm.* When we discovered the prefetch queue cycle-eater, we learned to
use short instructions. When we discovered the 8-bit bus cycle-eater, we
learned to use byte-sized memory operands whenever possible, and to keep
word-sized variables in registers. What can we do to work around the
DRAM refresh cycle-eater?

Nothing.

As I've said before, DRAM refresh is an act of God. DRAM refresh is a
fundamental, unchanging part of the PC's operation, and there's nothing
you or I can do about it. If refresh were any less frequent, the
reliability of the PC would be compromised, so tinkering with either
timer 1 or DMA channel 0 to reduce DRAM refresh overhead is out. Nor is
there any way to structure code to minimize the impact of DRAM refresh.
Sure, some instructions are affected less by DRAM refresh than others,
but how many multiplies and divides in a row can you really use? I
suppose that code *could* conceivably be structured to leave a free
memory access every 72 cycles, so DRAM refresh wouldn't have any effect.
In the old days when code size was measured in bytes, not K bytes, and
processors were less powerful—and complex—programmers did in fact use
similar tricks to eke every last bit of performance from their code.
When programming the PC, however, the prefetch queue cycle-eater would
make such careful code synchronization a difficult task indeed, and any
modest performance improvement that did result could never justify the
increase in programming complexity and the limits on creative
programming that such an approach would entail. Besides, all that effort
goes to waste on faster 8088s, 286s, and other computers with different
execution speeds and refresh characteristics. There's no way around it:
Useful code accesses memory frequently and at irregular intervals, and
over the long haul DRAM refresh always exacts its price.

If you're still harboring thoughts of reducing the overhead of DRAM
refresh, consider this. Instructions that tend not to suffer very much
from DRAM refresh are those that have a high ratio of execution time to
instruction fetch time, and those aren't the fastest instructions of the
PC. It certainly wouldn't make sense to use slower instructions just to
reduce DRAM refresh overhead, for it's *total* execution time—DRAM
refresh, instruction fetching, and all—that matters.

The important thing to understand about DRAM refresh is that it
generally slows your code down, and that the extent of that performance
reduction can vary considerably and unpredictably, depending on how the
DRAM refreshes interact with your code's pattern of memory accesses.
When you use the Zen timer and get a fractional cycle count for the
execution time of an instruction, that's often the DRAM refresh
cycle-eater at work. (The display adapter cycleis another possible
culprit, and, on 386s and later processors, cache misses and pipeline
execution hazards produce this sort of effect as well.) Whenever you get
two timing results that differ less or more than they seemingly should,
that's usually DRAM refresh too. Thanks to DRAM refresh, variations of
up to 8.33 percent in PC code performance are par for the course.

### Wait States {#Heading19}

Wait states are cycles during which a bus access by the CPU to a device
on the PC's bus is temporarily halted by that device while the device
gets ready to complete the read or write. Wait states are well and truly
the lowest level of code performance. Everything we have discussed (and
will discuss)—even DMA accesses—can be affected by wait states.